Academic Writing(Eng. Ed. 424)- B.Ed. Second Year, TU

                                                                             

 Unit 1: Academic Writing (25 Marks)

v What is academic writing?

Academic writing refers to the type of writing which is produced for the educational and research purposes. In other words, any writing done to fulfill a requirement of a school or college or university is called academic writing. It is performed by subject experts, scholars, university professors, researchers and professionals. It is formal and impersonal writing written in academic setting. In English, academic writing is linear, which means it has one central point or theme with every part contributing to the main line of argument without digression or repetition. Its main purpose is to inform rather than to entertain. For example: writing journal, book review, editorial, CV, etc.

v Features of academic writing

Since academic writing is the standard form of writing, it has some characteristic features which are discussed below:

a.     Formality: It uses formal language. It avoids colloquial words, jargons, slangs, abbreviations, and contractions (they're, he's). First person perspective is replaced by third person perspective.  

b.    Objectivity: It must be objective and factual rather than subjective and personal. The writer should mention the facts instead of including his/her view points.

c.      Explicitness: It should be clear to understand. The writer must express information clearly and explicitly.

d.    Accuracy: The writer should use the vocabulary items accurately. Ambiguous items should be avoided.

e.      Consistency: The writer should use only one style in one writing. There are mainly three styles: MLA(Modern Language Association), APA(American Psychological Association) and  Chicago Manual.

f.      Precision: All facts and figures should be expressed clearly and precisely.

g.     Complexity: Academic writing is more complex than other writings. It is lexically, grammatically and semantically dense and formal. It uses clauses, and compound and complex sentences.

h.    Hedging: Hedges are language items used when the writer is uncertain of something being expressed. The writer uses the hedges such as 'approximately', 'I think', 'sort of', 'kind of', etc. to strengthen his/her claim.

i.       Responsibility: The writer must be responsible for all the facts, justifications, evidence and claims made in the writing

 

1.1.                     Distinction between academic and personal writing

We can distinguish between academic writing and personal writing on the basis of the following parameters/aspects:

Aspect	Academic Writing	Personal Writing
Formality	formal/impersonal	informal/personal
Reader	academics	family and friends
Content	serious/standard	conversational
Style	complex sentences	simple and compound sentences
Organization	clear and well planned	less clear, less organized and less academic
Grammar	likely to be error free	may not use always complete sentences
Vocabulary	technical and academic language	use of short forms, idioms, slangs, abbreviations, contractions, etc.

 

1.2.                     Plagiarism

v What is plagiarism?

Plagiarism refers to an act of copying another person's ideas or work into one's writing without mentioning the original source or author. It is an intellectual dishonesty or theft. It can be a serious offence in an academic work. Mostly the University students seem to have faced the issue of plagiarism as they use other's works without citing or acknowledging them either by intention or due to lack of knowledge on the importance of quoting or citing. Since it is a serious academic offence/sin, each writer should attempt his/her best to avoid plagiarism.

v The following ways of taking information from others would be considered plagiarism:

a.     not providing reference when we have used other's ideas in our work.

b.     no use of quotation marks even if we provide the reference.

c.      taking a few sentences or paragraphs from other's work without referencing.

v The following ways would not be considered plagiarism:

a.     use of commonly accepted ideas even without referencing.

b.     presenting the results of our own work.

c.      use of some vocabulary from the original or use of some new sentence structures different from the ones in the original texts.

d.     using the summary substantially different from the original.

1.2.1    Avoiding Plagiarism and Self-Plagiarism:

v Avoiding Plagiarism: Generally, when authors claim others' ideas as their own, it is plagiarism. But in order to avoid plagiarism, they should not claim the ideas of others as their own. Instead, they should give credit to the original authors aptly.

v Avoiding Self-Plagiarism: If an author uses ideas from his previously published work for his present work without referencing as new ideas, then it is called self-plagiarism. In order to avoid plagiarism, the authors can mention "as I have previously discussed".

1.2.2    How to Avoid Plagiarism:        

In order to maintain academic honesty, the author needs to avoid plagiarism in his work. Some of the ways to avoid plagiarism are mentioned below:

a.     Integrating quotations into the text: Using quotations in research helps support arguments, provide evidence, and reference authoritative sources. Here are some examples of how to use quotations effectively:

·        Short Quotes

According to Smith (2020), "climate change is the most pressing issue of our time" (p. 45).

 

·        Long Quotes (usually more than 40 words)

Smith (2020) explains: Climate change is the most pressing issue of our time. The impact on global temperatures, rising sea levels, and extreme weather events has been extensively documented. Governments must take immediate action to mitigate these effects before they become irreversible. (p. 45)

 

2.     Paraphrasing and summarizing: Next way to avoid plagiarism is to paraphrase or summarize the original source or text in writer's own words.

Original Text:

"Climate change is the most pressing issue of our time. Rising global temperatures, extreme weather events, and melting ice caps are clear indicators that immediate action is needed." (Smith, 2020, p. 45)

Paraphrased Version:

Smith (2020) argues that climate change is a critical challenge today, as shown by increasing temperatures, severe weather patterns, and the rapid melting of ice caps. Immediate measures are necessary to address these concerns.

 

3.     Referencing or citations: The sources used for the creation of any academic texts should be properly referenced under the section 'Reference' or 'Works Cited'. The sources are arranged alphabetically by author's last names, or when there is no author, by the first word of the title excluding 'A, An or The' at the beginning. Within the list, if a particular author is cited more than once, then the author's entries are ordered chronologically y date (with most recent first". Mainly two systems are used for referencing/ identifying the resources: MLA (Modern Language Association) and APA (American Psychological Association)

MLA and APA Formats

A.     MLA format

1.     For a book entry

Author (family and personal name in full). Title of Book. City of publication: Publisher, year of publication.

Example:

Bailey, Stephen. Academic Writing. London: Rutledge, 2006.

 

2.      For an article entry

Author (Family and personal name in full). "Title of Article". Title of periodical, Vol (year): Pages

Example:

Hamp-Lyons, Liz. "Social and Individual responsibility in Language Testing". Testing System, 28 (2009): 201-207

 

B.     APA format

1.      For a book entry

Author's family and initial name (year of publication). Title of the book. City of Publication: Publisher

Example:

Bailey, Stephan (2010). Academic Writing. London: Rutledge.

 

2.      For an article entry

Author's family and initial name. Title of the article. Title of the periodical, volume number, pages.

Example:

Adhikari, D. and Rijal, D. (2014). Peer Group support in language learning. The Effor, 2, 20-24.

 

1.3        Elements of Academic Writing

Academic writing requires various essential skills, collectively known as the elements of academic writing. Some of them are described below:

a. Argument

An argument is a central claim or position that is supported by evidence and logical reasoning. It requires critical thinking and structured presentation to persuade the reader. A strong argument is based on facts, research, and analysis rather than personal opinions.

Making an Argument

Claim         :Tiktok should be banned in Nepal.  Evidence-1 :TikTok spreads misinformation that can mislead people in Nepal. Evidence-2 :It negatively affects students by distracting them from their studies.  Evidence-3 :TikTok can harm privacy by collecting user data without proper security. Evidence-4 :It promotes harmful trends that can be dangerous for young users. Evidence-5 :The app increases cyberbullying and online harassment in Nepal. Evidence-6 :It affects Nepalese culture by encouraging foreign influences over local traditions.

 

Developing into a Paragraph

Why Should Tiktok Be Banned In Nepal? TikTok should be banned in Nepal because it has many negative effects. First, it spreads misinformation, which can mislead people and create confusion. Second, students get distracted by the app, making it harder for them to focus on their studies. Third, TikTok collects user data, which can put people's privacy at risk. Another problem is that it promotes harmful trends, which can be dangerous, especially for young users. In addition, cyberbullying and online harassment have increased because of TikTok. Lastly, it affects Nepalese culture by encouraging foreign influences instead of local traditions. Because of these reasons, banning TikTok would be a good decision for Nepal.

 

 

Making an Argument

Claim         : We should learn the English language. Evidence 1 : English helps in education because many books and resources are in English. Evidence 2 : It improves job opportunities since many companies prefer employees who speak English. Evidence 3 : English is an international language, making it useful for travel and communication. Evidence 4 : It allows access to global information, including news, science, and technology updates. Evidence 5 : English connects people worldwide, helping in making friends and business contacts. Evidence 6 : It makes using the internet easier, as most websites and apps are in English.

 

Developing into a Paragraph

Why to Learn the English Language? We should learn the English language because it is very useful in many ways. First, English helps in education since many books and learning materials are written in English. Second, it improves job opportunities because many companies prefer workers who can speak English. Third, English is an international language, so it is helpful for travel and communication with people from different countries. Also, it allows access to global information, including news, science, and technology updates. In addition, English connects people worldwide, making it easier to make friends and business contacts. Finally, it makes using the internet easier, as most websites and apps are in English. For these reasons, learning English is very important.

Making an Argument

Claim         : Technical and vocational education is necessary in Nepal Evidence-1 :Skilled workers can start their own businesses, reducing dependence on government jobs. Evidence-2 :A skilled workforce helps industries grow, boosting the country's economy. Evidence-3 :More skilled workers mean fewer unemployed people, improving living standards. Evidence-4 :If people have job opportunities in Nepal, they will not need to go abroad for work. Evidence-5 :Vocational training in farming, carpentry, and mechanics helps people improve their communities.

Developing into a Paragraph

Technical and Vocational Education is Necessary in Nepal Technical and vocational education is important for Nepal because it helps people learn useful skills to get jobs and improve their lives. Skilled workers can start their own businesses, so they do not have to depend on government jobs. This also creates more jobs for others. When more people have skills, industries grow, and the country's economy becomes stronger. Fewer people will be unemployed, and they can have a better life. If there are enough job opportunities in Nepal, people will not need to go to other countries for work. Training in farming, carpentry, and mechanics also helps villages grow and develop. That is why technical and vocational education is necessary for Nepal.

 

 

 

Example-1: Government policies that promote renewable energy significantly reduce dependency on fossil fuels, leading to lower carbon emissions (Davis, 2021).

 

Example-2: Climate change is primarily caused by human activities, as evidenced by rising carbon dioxide levels due to industrial emissions (Smith, 2020).

 

b. Cause and Effect

This element explains the relationship between events, showing how one action or event leads to another. It is often used in essays and research papers to analyse reasons and consequences.

Cause→     Effect

Heavy rain → Landslide

Pollution → Health problems

Example-1:

Deforestation leads to soil erosion, which in turn reduces agricultural productivity (Jones, 2019).

Example-2:

A lack of physical activity contributes to obesity, increasing the risk of heart disease and diabetes (Brown, 2022).

 

 

c. Cohesion

Cohesion refers to how ideas are logically connected and flow smoothly in writing. It is achieved through linking words, clear paragraph structure, and consistency in ideas.

First, industrial pollution increases greenhouse gases. As a result, global temperatures rise, leading to extreme weather conditions.

Example-2:

The study begins by exploring the history of artificial intelligence. Subsequently, it discusses the ethical concerns associated with AI advancements.

 

d. Comparison

Comparison involves examining similarities and differences between concepts, theories, or arguments. It helps in evaluating different perspectives and forming balanced conclusions.

Example-1:

While renewable energy sources like solar and wind are sustainable, fossil fuels remain a major energy source due to their availability (Brown, 2021).

Example-2:

Traditional education methods emphasise memorisation, whereas modern approaches focus on critical thinking and problem-solving skills.

 

e. Discussion

A discussion presents different viewpoints on a topic, often weighing advantages and disadvantages. It encourages critical engagement with ideas and evidence before reaching a conclusion.

Example;

Some researchers argue that social media improves communication, while others claim it leads to decreased face-to-face interaction. However, recent studies suggest a balanced approach is necessary (Lee, 2022).

Example-2:

While online learning provides flexibility, critics argue that it lacks the social interaction of traditional classrooms. Nonetheless, blended learning methods attempt to combine the benefits of both approaches.

 

f. Examples, References, and Quotations

Examples support arguments by providing real-life cases or data. References and quotations give credibility to academic writing by citing sources and acknowledging others' work.

Example-1:

"According to Johnson (2018), 'Regular physical exercise improves mental health and reduces stress levels'."

Example-2:

While online learning provides flexibility, critics argue that it lacks the social interaction of traditional classrooms. Nonetheless, blended learning methods attempt to combine the benefits of both approaches.

 

g. Style

Academic writing follows a formal style, avoiding contractions, slang, and personal opinions. It focuses on clarity, precision, and objective presentation of ideas.

Example-1:

Informal: "Kids should avoid too much screen time because it’s bad for them." Formal: Excessive screen time negatively impacts children's cognitive development (White, 2020).

Example-2:

Informal: I think global warming is a problem everyone should worry about. Formal: Global warming presents significant environmental and economic challenges that require immediate action (Green, 2019).

 

Researching and Writing Academic writing is very formal and factual. The contents and information for academic writing are to be scientifically justifiable and verifiable. Therefore, research and academic writing are related.

 

Ø  Research is to find out something new time and again, either to find out newer aspect or to validate the already established findings and theories.

 

Ø  Research topics or subjects are created through the queries of the research minded people about various aspects of the environment. It may be just a survey or mini or detailed research. For example, "Most important feature of NMC", for which we need to adopt certain procedures such as setting objectives, setting variables, developing tools, etc. Next topic could be "Reading habit of B.Ed. IIIrd Year students", for which again we need to stick to certain procedures.

 

Ø  Academic writing is generally based on the first-hand information collected by the writer himself as a researcher or second hand information that has been already established. The former is retrieved through research, whereas the latter is through consulting various sources.

 

Ø  While researching, a researcher needs to follow a lot of steps, but not are all these steps necessary, only the needed ones can be followed. Some of the steps are:

 

·         Problem/issue identification

 

·         Description of problem

 

·         Determination of objectives

 

·         Consulting/visiting related literatures

 

·         Significance of methodoloer: sampling and data collection tools

 

·         Classification and analysis of data

 

·         Interpretation of the analysis: comparison, contrast, etc

 

·         References

 

1.5                 Fundamentals and feedback

 

All the essentials nedded for any piece of sound academic writing are fundamentals of writing.

 

1.6                 Definition, vocabulary and academic clarity

 

Specialized words and expressions used in academic writings need to be defined for clarity. Similarly vocabularies used are also formal.

 

1.6.1          Language structure for definitions:

 

According to Stephen Baily (2006, p 79), in academic writing, definitions are normally needed in two situations:

 

·         In introduction to clarify a word or phrase in the title.

 

·         More generally, to explain a word or phrase which may be either very technical (and so not in normal dictionaries), very recent or with no widely agreed meaning.

 

Parts of defined items:

 

Word	Category	Detail	Use
A lecture	is a formal talk	given to large group	used for teaching
An asignment	is a task	often given to students	for teaching or assignment

 

Various structures used in definition

 

Ø  A hospital is a place where ill people go for medical treatment.

 

Structure: concept +be+a/an/the +class/category+wh-word+defining information

 

Ø  Memory is the ability which we use to retain information.

 

Structure: concept+'be' verb + class + (wh-word)+special features

 

Ø  Wealth means riches.

 

Structure: Item+verb (simple present)+defining information

 

1.6.2          Use of clauses for definition:

 

Ø  According to Hamp-Lyons and Heasley (2008,p.53), since definitions try to narrow the meaning of an item, the restrictive relative clauses are used in formal definitions. Non-restrictive ones provide extra information about the subject of the main clause and can be used to expand definitions.

 

Ø  Types of RC: Restrictive, Non-restrictive, reduced and extended

 

Ø  Examples:

 

Ø  Restrictive: A person who doesn't buy you a drink is called a stingy.

 

Ø  Non-restrictive: Dentists, who look after people's teeth, are key members of the health.

 

Ø  Reduced: A calorie is a measure of energy commonly used in physical Sciences.

 

Ø  Extended: definitions of concepts from different angles which extend from sentence to paragraphs. They are larger than formal definitions.

 

Vocabulary in academic writing:

 

Vocabularies used in academic writing are generally formal and recent ones (instead of archaic ones). The three-step procedure for the selection and exploitation of formal vocabularies is as follows:

 

Ø  Prewriting activity: reading the texts that surround/ typify the topic of writing in question and mark the special vocabularies. we need to read as many texts as possible.

 

Ø  Establishing meanings and listing definitions: we do all these things by observing the use of vocabulary in the text.

 

Ø  Using vocabulary in the text being written: we can make choice of the vocabulary use with specific meaning and definitions.

 

Ø  Some topics of writing: Democracy, population and pollution, etc..

 

Ø  Accordingly we can enlist some of the formal vocabulary that can be used under those topics.

 

Ø  Summing up: formal vocabularies with special meanings/concepts defined well  contribute to academic clarity.

 

1.7                 Generalization, facts and academic reality

 

Ø  Generalizations are thesis statements/ideas drawn from the relationship of various related facts and concepts. Ideal generalizations are not merely generalizations but are justified by credible examples and evidences conforming to honesty principle.

 

Ø  They are very important in academic writing as they can introduce or squeeze the property of a concept just in one sentence. They are more fact/evidence based.

 

1.7.1        Generalizations and honesty principle:

 

Ø  According to Hamp-Lyons and Heasley, 'The Honesty Principle says only say or write that for which you have evidence (2008,p.60). More clearly, the honesty principle tells us to say or write that for which we have adequate valid evidence to support the generalizations or claims.

 

Ø  To sum up, while making generalizations or claims, we need to maintain honesty principle- meaning to justify our generalizations or claims through evidence.

 

1.7.2. The Language of generalizations:

 

Ø  Academic writers do not use absolute generalizations. As per Hamp-Lyons and Heasley (2008, p.63), academic writers/writings use special language to make sure that their generalizations reflect their level of certainty about a statement. Hedges are the uses of language that let people write or speak in a limited way and avoid overgeneralization. This is in line with honesty principle.

 

Ø  Hedges are words/phrases used to indicate that the writer is not that much sure of what he/she is admitting is sufficiently correct or complete. Hedging words can be verbs, adverbs, adjectives or collective nouns such as suggest, generally, probable, a majority, etc.

 

1.7.2.1 Language used for hedging generalized actions:

 

1.7.2.2 Verbs used in hedging:

 

Ø  Hedges are used when the writer is not sure of the facts he is writing. The following verbs that forecast, suggest and propose can be used as hedges.

 

Ø  Seem, appear, believe, assume, suggest, speculate, project, tend, think, argue, propose and forecast.

 

Ø  ..."say that...can be converted into..."

 

Ø  ...believe/suggest/speculate/estimate that.........

 

1.7.2.3 Boosting generalizations:

 

Ø  Boosting means strengthening or enriching. In academic writings, generalizations are boosted by using adverbs and adjectives called boosters. For examples, adjectives: complete, total, extreme definite, great, deep, strong, high, entire, vast, careful, etc, and adverbs with ly to them

 

Ø  Note: we can make use of boosters and hedges while drawing generalizations from facts/data presented in the diagram

 

1.7.3 Writing a literature review:

 

Major purposes:

 

Ø  to situate the researcher's study in its contexts, and

 

Ø  to explain its importance to his/her field of study

 

Important for the researcher because it:

 

Ø  enables him/her to limit his/her field of study

 

Ø  tells him what has been done in the field of his study

 

Ø  enables him to identify the problems of the areas.

 

Literature review requires skills in summarizing as the researcher needs to study all the relevant texts in the field of study. It includes brief writing, summarieng, understanding research gap an designing another form of research work.

 

1.7.4 The language for process writing:

 

Ø  The processes of events/activities in order should be maintained with sequences connected with some linguistic tools eg. First/firstly/first of all (sequence connector), second/secondly...

 

Ø  Generalizations of activities are needed.

 

1.7.5 Nominations in acdemic writing:

 

The process of turning verbs (action words) into nouns (things, concepts, people) is called nominalization. Nominalized forms frequently used in academic writing as they beautify the writing and make it more precise and formal.

 

Nominalizations used for three reasons:

 

Ø  it provides a link back to the previous sentence, eg, ...educated, ...Education...

 

Ø  It can function like subject, eg, Education.....

 

Ø  It makes sentences more precise.

 

1.7.6 The Reality Principle:

 

Ø  According to Hamp-Lyons and Heasley, "Everything depends on who your reader is. If you are writing for a scientific community you can assume an understanding of common scientific terms and procedures. However, if you are writing for a general readership you have to make different assumptions (2008, p.100).

 

Ø  It means the writer of an assume that his target readers have the general understanding of the field of his study, but requires specific information which needs/might need expert's expertise.

 

Ø  In short, the 'reality principle' tells us that we have to delineate/determine what information the readers assumed to have known in advance of reading the new text/article, and what information is yet to be given/ presented through the text.

 

Ø  The 'reality principle', therefore, sides with what the readers have known in advance.

 

1.8                 Results, discussion and academic relevance:

 

Discussion of some points belonging to academic writing: arguments, coherence, results, relevance principle, discussion and academic voice.

 

1.8.1 Academic Argument:

 

Ø  An argument is a set of ideas initiated in favor of or against some concepts or ideas.

 

Ø  Academic writing is sometimes a matter of argument known as academic argument. The contents in academic writing re research-based, and which can be both firsthand and secondary information.

 

Ø  Hamp-Lyons and Heasley (2008) says, "Much of the work of others done by academics involves understanding, reporting and interpreting the work of others. But knowledge is created by original research and original research requires original thinking. If someone is to think originally, they have to think critically and be able to argue.

 

Ø  Academic argument is a thesis statement which is debatable and needs critical thinking. Further it requires more evidences for its justification and truchfulness.

 

1.8.1.1 Identifying a Thesis Statement in a work:

 

Ø  It is debatable and arguable, flexible and extendable, relatively subjective and is supported by evidences.

 

Ø  Can be placed initially, medially or finally in a paragraph.

 

1.8.1.2 Identifying different kinds of evidence:

 

After identifying or establishing a thesis statement, it needs to determine what kinds of evidences are essential to support and justify it. The evidence can be:

 

Ø  Reasons and arguments based on experts opinions and research findings,

 

Ø  Case studies or facts, and

 

Ø  Statistics

 

1.8.1.3 Identifying an argument:

 

Briefly a written argument is text that:

 

Ø  lays out a position which is a recognized set of views in the discipline, and

 

Ø  Attempts to show why it is wrong or incomplete.

 

1.8.1.4 The language of argument:

 

A.      Increasing the argumentative level: In academic texts/ writing, the argumentative language occurs in the result/conclusion section. The level increases in the result and conclusions sections.

 

B.      Coherence/cohesion in argument: In academic writing, links/connections are used between concepts, ideas and details, eg. Consequently, although, though in fact, while, etc which can maintain coherence.

 

C.      Presenting an academic identity: less personalization, but a more widely accepted set of views.

 

D.     Academic support to the argument: Argument should be supported with evidence, otherwise the readers may not accept it.

 

1.8.2 The Results and Discussion Sections:

 

Ø  The results means reporting or conclusions drawn form the observation of data.. Discussion includes explanation, analysis and interpretation.

 

1.8.2.1 The results sections:

 

Ø  In the results sections of academic writing, the exact findings of data observation or calculations are given. Moreover, the researcher doesn't present the raw or crude data unless the evidence from them is required. But mainly the converted form of data is presented through graph or diagram or figures, tables, etc.

 

1.8.2.2 The discussion section:

 

Ø  In this section, the researcher analyzes, explains and interprets the various relations of the converted data, eg, contrast, similarities etc. While eting, some of the relations are more highlighted than the others as per the objectives of the study.

 

Ø  Sticking to the topic and the purpose/objective, the researcher ensures the relevance and the relevance principle. Connectives are used to show the sequences and chrornologies, eg, first, second, etc; in addition to, more over, however, finally, etc. The correct tense like either past simple, present simple or present perfect is recommended.

 

 

3.1.                     Fundamentals and feedback

3.2.                     Definition, vocabulary and academic clarity

3.3.                     Generalizations, facts and academic reality

3.4.                     Results, discussion and academic relevance

 

 

 

Unit 2: Academic Writing Process and Strategies (35 Marks)

2.1                        Getting started

2.2                        Getting to first draft

a.     Getting ideas and start

b.    Writing a first draft and getting feedback

2.3                        Working with a draft

Focusing on main ideas

Developing and shaping ideas

Beginning and ending draft

2.4                        Reworking the draft

Revising

Polishing revised draft

 

Unit 3: Use of Published Sources for Academic Writing (20 Marks)

 3.1Writing summaries 3.2 Writing paraphrases 3.3 Using quotations 3.4 Citations

 

Unit 4: Writing Models (25 Marks)

Writing CVs

Reporting and designing surveys

Taking ideas from sources

Writing journal articles

Writing newspaper articles

Writing a research report

Writing a book review